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Sonam Kapoor famous as Sakina born on June 9, 1985 is an New Indian film actress who appears in Bollywood movies. Born to Bollywood’s super actor Anil Kapoor and his wife Sunita Kapoor, Sonam was brought up in a truly filmy ambience. One of her uncles Boney Kapoor is a film producer and another uncle Sanjay Kapoor is an actor. She grew up with a passion to become an actress in her own right one day.

Sonam studied at University of East London and then enrolled in the United World College of South East Asia to do her International Baccalaureate. She later graduated from the University of Mumbai.

with Political Science and Economics as her majors. She is fluent in English, Hindi, and Punjabi. She has received training in classical and Latin dance forms.

Sonam Kapoor profile



Sonam Birth Name: Sonam Anil Kapoor

Sonam Kapoor DOB: 9 June 1985

Sonam Kapoor Status: Single

Sonam Kapoor Debut Film: Sawaariya

Sonam Kapoor Height: 5’ 9 1/2

Sonam Kapoor Weight: 60 Kg

Sonam Kapoor basic interests: Direction and writing

Sonam Kapoor Hobby: love dancing, trained in Kathak, classical music, and Latin dance.

Sonam Kapoor languages known: Sindhi, Hindi, English and Punjabi.

Sonam Kapoor Favourite Songs: Jab Koyi Baat Bigad Jaye.

Sonam Kapoor Favourite Composers: A.R. Rahman and Red Hot Chilli Peppers.

Sonam Kapoor Favorite Movies: all of Satyajit Ray’s films (especially Pather Panchali (1955)), all of Raj Kapoor movies.

Sonam Kapoor Favorite Director: Sanjay Leela Bhansali.

Sonam Kapoor Favorite Actresses: Sridevi, Madhuri Dixit, Kajol, Tabu, Rani Mukherjee, Kareena Kapoor, and Priyanka Chopra.

Sonam Kapoor Favorite Actor: father Anil Kapoor.

Sonam Kapoor Favorite Books: Milan Kundera’s Unbearable Lightness of Being, Ayn Rand’s Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged, The Mahabharata because she finds it so positive and gives her hope all the time.

Sonam Kapoor Favorites Brands: Chanel, Jean Paul Gaultier, and Dior.

For more information see here

http://24×7entertainments.blogspot.com/2009/01/sonam-kapoor-sakina.html

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The Indian book publishing industry has today a vitality of its own. The prolific growth of publishers in its towns and cities has resulted in thousands of books/periodicals being produced in not only English but also other national/regional languages every year. Many of these publications are of great merit and valuable contribution keeping the cultural, ethnic and linguistic pluralities of the Indian society in mind. However, not all of them are easily accessible. Indeed, finding a book/journal published by, say, a publisher in a remote town could prove a difficult task for customers. And herein is the significance of an organisation like DK. We, at DK, with our amazing resourcefulness and expertise in the field, can locate any title published in the country.

Beginning with English language books, we expanded our services to include Sanskrit and Tibetan language books and then those in all the major Indian languages. We started cataloguing Sanskrit language books towards the end of the 1970s and added books in the national language Hindi later. Today, we receive nearly 15,000 books of Indian origin in all these Indian languages. The Indian languages in which we offer services are as follows:

Assamese

Bengali (Published from both India and Bangladesh)

Gujarati

Hindi (different dialects)

Kannada

Malayalam

Marathi

Oriya

Punjabi

Sanskrit

Tamil

Telugu

Urdu (Published from both India and Pakistan)

All these language books are catalogued at DK with utmost care and attention following the same level of cataloguing parameters as we do for books in English, Sanskrit and Hindi. The cataloging is done in Romanised format using diacritical marks as per ALA/LC Romanisation Tables. Due care is given to catalogue classical Sanskrit works using uniform titles wherever necessary. The software at DK supports MARC21 records with the original scripts of all these languages for major fields.

Our foremost concern is to make available to our customers any publication in any Indian/major South Asian language from this subcontinent. And in this our unique resourcefulness comes to full view. It should not be therefore surprising that within a short time we have gradually expanded our services and made an enviable place for ourselves among the service organisations at the global level.

We are proud to say that we now receive nearly 28,000 books of South Asian origin every year. A lot of Tibetan language books have been appearing from India. DK started cataloguing that literature in the early 1980s and later began adding those published from Bhutan as well. All these books cater to a range of customers associated with different academic disciplines and professions, and belonging to various age groups including children.

You may like to visit our page for Indian Books In All Indian Languages Along with other South Asian Languages.

Increasingly non-conventional methods of publishing are gaining popularity in the South Asian region and our effort is to offer what is available in terms of these products as well. Therefore, we try to make available CD-ROMs, microfilms/microfiche and audios of Indic languages’ learning kits

Our highly comprehensive coverage has made our website the largest book database from South Asia offering books for sale. The website (www.dkagencies.com) has also been selected as an Associate site to the Asian Studies WWW Virtual Library and is treated as a key resource for networked Asian studies reach and teaching activities.

 

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ayan’s attitude towards the English language:

a postcolonial posture, a utilitarian gesture

Abstract

This paper is intended to examine R. K. Narayan’s attitude towards the English language as reflected in his essays. Narayan (1906-2001) was born and grown up in a period when English education was already institutionalised in the Indian Sub-continent. Like other Indian writers in English, such as Raja Rao and Mulk Raj Anand, he received English education and used to write in English from the beginning of his literary career up to the end. However, he is seen to have used the English language and literary form to scrutinise colonialism and depict the Indian society continually under change due to the colonial rule. A part of this endeavour seems to be evident in Narayan’s attitude towards the English language. Narayan’s position in this regard is deemed quite ambivalent and complex —he is aware that English is the language of the colonist, yet he is found to have accepted it for practical reasons. That is, his attitude towards the English language appears to have resulted from and shaped by the reality prevailing in the postcolonial setting.

Keywords: R. K. Narayan, attitude, English language, postcolonial posture, utilitarian gesture

–– I ––

The study of the English language and literature in the postcolonial context seems to be “a densely political and cultural phenomenon” (Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffins 1989: 2-3) and consequently comes under the purview of the postcolonial writers. One of the fundamental assertions of postcolonialism is that the English language and literature have played a very significant role in propounding colonial ideology aimed at the survival and consolidation of the colonial rule (Walder 1998). In other words, the construction of English literary education is part of the colonial cultural design (Viswanathan 1995). Many postcolonial writers have attempted to address the issue of cultural domination through the English language and literature. For instance, Thiong’o (1995) opines that the central position given to the study of the English language and literature in Africa emanates from the assumption of the cultural superiority of the West. This is why, he prescribes that the English departments should be abolished from the universities in Africa. Indian novelist Raja Rao (2000: v) states that English is the language of the intellect, not of emotion; and in India English should therefore be appropriated to the level of “a dialect which will some day prove to be as distinctive and colourful as the Irish or the American”. Hence, postcolonial writing uses the language of the colonists but adapts it to the discourse of the colonised. It is performed by two processes: abrogation and appropriation (Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffins 1989). Abrogation stands for challenging the notion of universality as claimed by the colonists with regard to the language. Appropriation, on the other hand, is the use of the imperial language to express the cultural experience of the colonised. This is a process by which imperial English is made to encounter vernacular languages. Standard English words are used in many new meanings, and, in turn, the English language receives many new words from indigenous languages. Besides, postcolonial literature emerges out of the tension between these two pulls. Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin (1989: 39) rightly maintain-

… in one sense all post-colonial literatures are cross-cultural because they negotiate a gap between ‘worlds’, a gap in which the simultaneous processes of abrogation and appropriation continually strive to define and determine their practice.

Thus, challenging and overhauling the Eurocentric notion of language become an essential part of literary decolonisation (Loomba 2001).

As Boehmer (1995) illustrates, almost all the aspects of the world of the colonised including the language of instruction and commerce were dominated by the empire. The colonial education of the middle class people then tended to create ‘mental colonization’ among them: “English-language and -literature instruction played a key role in naturalizing British values” (Boehmer 1995:169). By the early 20th century, students from the colonies were heavily influenced by the excellence of the English language and literature. This factor seems to account for the “syncretic” nature of the postcolonial society, which cannot be compartmentalised into either a purely traditional or a purely alien. Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin (1989: 110) contend, “The construction of ‘pure’ cultural value is always conducted within a radically altered dynamic of power relations”. Therefore, a postcolonial reading of R. K. Narayan’s works, especially essays with regard to his attitude to the English language would likely to reveal that he endeavours to formulate a synthesis between the Indian element and the colonial one.

–– II ––

The colonial education that Narayan received might have influenced his views on the English language since in the classroom Narayan had to see English as the first language, his native language being a second language (Walsh 1982). English was the most prestigious subject due to political, administrative, social, economic and scientific reasons. Although Tamil, the language of Narayan’s province, and Sanskrit, the classical language of India, were taught in the school, they were considered inferior in status and provided occasions for jokes. Narayan (2001b: 464) admits this in his essay “English in India”-

But in the classroom neither of these two languages was given any importance; they were assigned to the most helpless among the teachers, the pundits who were treated as a joke by the boys, since they taught only the ‘second language’, the first being English as ordained by Lord Macaulay when he introduced English education in India.

Besides encountering textbooks in English in his school and college, Narayan extensively read English literature outside his syllabus. His father’s library at home and his school library were crammed with books on English literature (Narayan 2001b). Narayan took the full opportunity of the libraries and enthusiastically read Scott, Dickens, Rider Haggard, Marie Corelli, Moliere, Pope, Marlowe, Tolstoy, Thomas Hardy and others (Narayan 1995). He was also in touch with the current literary scene through various magazines such as Little Folks, Nineteenth Century and After, Cornhill, Strand Magazine, Mercury, The Spectator, The Times Literary Supplement and The Manchester Guardian. The cumulative impact of this massive reading of the English literature was that he became very well versed in the English language. As a writer, Narayan opted for the English language simply because it suited him better than his mother tongue. In an interview, he says-

I never had any idea that I was writing in another tongue. My whole education has been in English from the primary school, and most of my reading has been in the English language . . . I wrote in English because it came to me very easily. (qtd. by Sundaram 1988)

It was then very unlikely that a writer like Narayan who learned the English language to such an extent as to produce his works in it, would reject or censure it easily on nationalistic grounds.

–– III ––

India became free from the colonial rule in 1947, but the linguistic and cultural implication of colonialism still remained operative, serving two conspicuously unavoidable purposes: a unifying linguistic agency for administration and a means of wider international communication (Kachru: 1995). In the mean time, the issue of either the acceptance or the rejection of the English language became one of the hot debates since the beginning of Indian nationalist movement in the 1920s. Gandhi’s ‘Swadeshi Movement’ was aimed at embracing all that was swadeshi (indigenous), and hence English being a foreign language came under the scrutiny of this movement. The use of the English language by the Indians was often denounced, and Hindi was seen as a possible substitute. In his novel Waiting for the Mahatma, Narayan (2001a: 27) has made Gandhi declare that he will not deliver his lecture in English because “It’s the language of our rulers. It has enslaved us”. As Leela Gandhi (1998: 147) points out, Gandhi’s rejection of the English language stems from his belief in “the legitimate cultural primacy” of the Indian languages.

Nevertheless, the attempted ban on the English language created two contradictory positions among the Indian writers. The first group consisting of the writers using the indigenous languages protested against writing in English on nationalistic grounds. The second group constituted of the Indian writers in English continued writing in the English language to express their Indian experience. These polarities existing at the end of the colonial period surfaced with renewed vigour and extended dimensions after the independence of India (Dharwadker and Dharwadker 1996). Indian lawmakers framed a fifteen- year time limit to upgrade Hindi to the position of the official language of India. However, this project of expelling English within a fixed period yielded almost no result. Iyengar (2000) presents sufficient statistics of 1957 to show that there was no spectacular advance of Hindi, and the position of English as an Indian official language remained the same – English was still the language of inter-state communication or the sole lingua franca, the language of higher administration, law courts, education and examinations. Resultantly, parliamentary enactment gave English the status of “an associate language” with Hindi.

That Narayan (1988a: 14) was aware of the debate on the position of the English language in his country is evident in his essay “Fifteen Years”-

. . . various causes, practical, political, etc. have demanded the abolition of English from our midst. It is almost a matter of national propriety and prestige now to declare one’s aversion to this language, and to cry for its abolition.

There was a time when many people blindly admired English, and the ability to talk and write in the English language earned great prestige for a person. Notwithstanding, at present the patriotic fervour of the people made the language a hotcake for debate. Narayan (2000) depicts the same situation in his first novel Swami and Friends dealing with the effect of the colonial rule on the Indian people. The novel discloses that while people feel antipathy towards the British, they are also attracted to the paraphernalia of the colonial power. As a result, the colonial language has been the signifier of power and dignity. In the Albert Mission School, English is the most prestigious subject. Sankar’s name is well known because he can speak to the teachers in English in the open class (Swami and Friends 7); and likewise Rajam’s friends respect him because he speaks very good English, “exactly like a ‘European’” (Swami and Friends 12). In “Fifteen Years”, Narayan (1988a) takes a postcolonial view on this issue, showing his awareness that English is an alien language, yet advocating its use in India for practical purposes. According to him, the day-to-day reality has made it impossible for the Indians to castigate the English language.

Narayan (1988a) presents an imaginary conversation between an Indian judge and the personified English language. The judge puts forth the verdict that the English language must leave the country-

When we said, ‘Quit India,’ we meant it to apply to Englishmen as well as their language. And there does not seem to be much point in tolerating you in our midst. You are the language of the imperialist, the red-tapist, the diabolical legalist, the language which always means two things at the same time. (“Fifteen Years” 15)

Contrariwise, in reply to the judge, the English language points out that it has been firmly rooted in the Indian soil. In other words, having been practised for two hundred years, the English language has been part and parcel of the Indian society including its education, cultural activities, government machinery, law courts, business, trades, sports, aviation, navigation, agriculture, science, technology and so forth. In the essay, although the judge feels that the language must quit India, he cannot present any solid ground why it should be so; rather he remains confused and his advocacy inconclusive.

Hence, Narayan (1988a) is found to claim that the English language has been an integral part of the Indian reality. In fact, in the Indian context, it has been turned into the Indian English rather than the English of England. Narayan’s (1988a: position seems to echo the statement of Iyengar (2000): “English has become ours, it is not less ours for being primarily the Englishman’s or the American’s”.

–– IV ––

Narayan (1988a) obviously objectively thinks over the case of Hindi, that is, its establishment as a state language within a limited period of time. And in the essay “To a Hindi Enthusiast”, he suggests that it is impossible to impose Hindi as a state language in a set time limit. Quoting the aphorism from Shakespeare that “ripeness is all”, he argues ripeness cannot be forced by a government order or by the prescription of a commission. Like a sociolinguist (e.g. Hudson 1981), he maintains that the growth of a language is a natural process, which cannot be artificially stopped. Narayan (1988a: 26) then advocates the cause of English by adopting a postcolonial view-

For me, at any rate, English is an absolutely swadeshi language. English, of course, in a remote horoscopic sense, is a native of England, but it enjoys, by virtue of its uncanny ability, citizenship in every country in the world. It has sojourned in India longer than you or I and is entitled to be treated with respect. It is my hope that English will soon be classified as a non-regional Indian language.

It is thus evident that Narayan (1988a) is not advocating the servile imitation of the English language or the culture represented and spread by it. Rather, his intention is to absorb it into the grand procession of the Indian languages. The English language would be treated as one in the long list of the Indian languages and dialects, and its inclusion would not at all affect the total pattern of the language habit of the Indian people.

–– V ––

While Narayan (1988b: 28) seems to accept the presence of English in the day-to-day Indian reality, he also analyzes the cause of its popularity, commenting in “To a Hindi Enthusiast” that “half the charm of English was engendered by the manner in which its schoolbooks were produced”. The high quality print and coloured frontispiece exhibiting some London Bridge, rivers and towers, and the carefully selected contents with relevant black and white pictures have played a significant role in establishing the English language in this country. Narayan’s experience is consistent with that of Anita Desai (1996: 222) who writes in her essay “A Coat in Many Colors”-

Hindi texts we were given to study were, in contrast to the English ones, dry, pedantic, unimaginative, and unrelated to the simplicities of everyday life. They were also unattractively printed and published, a not unimportant factor to a child who, at that age, judges by the feel, the touch, and the taste of things.

It is then evident that both Narayan and Anita Desai are of the opinion that the highly sophisticated and impressive appearance of English books is responsible for their popular appeal to the people in India.

On the whole, Narayan’s position respecting the issue of the English language is rather complex. He seems to say that it could have been better if Hindi had taken the place of the English language in India, but presently it seems impossible to put Hindi to that exalted status and, therefore, it will be wise to accept the position of the English language. Again, when Narayan speaks in favour of the English language, he does not mean the King’s English; rather he means the language that has been coloured with the Indian context and filled with the vocabulary from the native languages and dialects. In his essay “A Literary Alchemy”, Narayan (1988c: 197) puts forward his idea of the Indian English which, he thinks, is the inevitable outcome of a natural process-

We have fostered the language for over a century and we are entitled to bring it in line with our own habits of thought and idiom. Americans have adapted the English language to suit their native mood and speech without feeling apologetic, and have achieved directness and unambiguity in expression.

That is, Narayan is suggesting that the Indian people should violate the “purist” conception of the English language and insert some new expressions suiting the Indian context. To Narayan, expressions like “Please do the needful” and “And oblige” are very much pertinent to the Indian context. Although inappropriate according to the “purist” standard of the English language, these expressions are a “masterpiece of economy and contribution to the English language” (“A Literary Alchemy” 198). While Narayan is considering the use of the Indian English, he is, at the same time, proposing to reconstruct the universal criteria of the language. In other words, he is abrogating and appropriating the language.

Narayan (2001c: 480) seems to be mocking at the idea of adhering to the principles laid down by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) which, in his essay “After the Raj” is described as “a sacred cow for us in India”. He expresses the same attitude in his essay “English in India” where he asserts that for maximum benefit the English language must reach the grassroots level of India. And here too he is speaking not of standard English but of its Indian variety: “the language must be taught in a simpler manner, through a basic vocabulary, simplified spelling, and explained and interpreted through the many spoken languages of India” (Narayan 2001c: 468).

–– VI ––

Narayan shows his awareness to the complex issues regarding the position of the English language in the colonial India. He is conscious of the foreign origin of the language and its imperial connotation. Notwithstanding, he clearly depicts how the English language has established a firm root in India and become an essential part of its social reality. Thus, Narayan’s voice is rather polyphonic.

That is to say, Narayan seems to believe that it is impossible to eliminate the English language from the social reality of India. And he pragmatically suggests the acceptance of the language in its Indianized form. Hence, Narayan’s attitude towards the English language is formed by the postcolonial reality and utilitarian value. To sum up, as Iyengar (2000: 359) comments, Narayan-

“uses the English language much as we used to wear dhoties manufactured in Lancashire— but the thoughts and feelings, the stirrings of the soul, the wayward movements of the consciousness, are all of the soil of India”.

Works Cited

Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literatures. Ed. Terence Hawkes. London and New York: Routledge, 1989.

- – -, ed. The Post-colonial Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.

Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial & Postcolonial Literature. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Desai, Anita, “A Coat in Many Colors.” South Asian English: Structure, Use and Users. Ed. Robert J. Baumgardner. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996. 221-30.

Dharwadker, Aparna and Vinay Dharwadker, “Language, Identity, and Nation in Postcolonial Indian English Literature.” English Postcoloniality: Literatures from Around the World. Eds. Radhika Mohanram and Gita Rajan. Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996.

Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Hudson, R. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Iyengar, K. R. Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. 5th ed. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1985. Rpt. 2000.

Kachru, Braj B. “The Alchemy of English.” The Post-colonial Studies Reader. Eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. London and New York : Routledge. 1995. 291-95.

Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.

Narayan, R. K. My Days: A Memoir. 1974. Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 1995.

- – - , “Fifteen Years.” R. K. Narayan. A Writer’s Nightmare: Selected Essays 1958-1988. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1988a. 14-16.

- – - , “To a Hindi Enthusiast.” R. K. Narayan. A Writer’s Nightmare: Selected Essays 1958-1988. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1988b. 26-28.

- – - , “A Literary Alchemy.” R. K. Narayan. A Writer’s Nightmare: Selected Essays 1958-1988. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1988c. 196-198.

- – - , Swami and Friends. 1935. Rpt. in The Magic of Malgudi. Ed. S. Krishnan. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000.

- – - , Waiting for the Mahatma. 1955. Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 2001a.

- – - , “English in India”. The Writerly Life: Selected Non-fiction of R. K. Narayan. Ed. S. Krishnan. New Delhi: Viking, 2001b. 464-468.

- – - , “After the Raj.” The Writerly Life: Selected Non-fiction. Ed. S. Krishnan. New Delhi: Viking, 2001c. 480-83.

Rao, Raja. Forward to Kanthapura. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Sundaram, P. S. R. K. Narayan as A Novelist. Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation, 1988.

Thiong’o, Ngugi Wa. “On the Abolition of the English Department.” The Post-colonial Studies Reader. Eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. London and New York : Routledge. 1995. 438-442.

Viswanathan, Gauri. “The Beginnings of English Literary Study in British India.” The Post-colonial Studies Reader. Eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. London and New York : Routledge. 1995. 431-437.

Walder, Denis. “Post-colonial Theory.” A Handbook to Literary Research. Eds. Simon Eliot and W. R. Owens. London: Routledge, 1998.

Walsh, W. R. K. Narayan: A Critical Appreciation. London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1982.

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When you purchase mobile phones you want to buy best cheap and banded mobile phones like Nokia, Samsung, LG, Sony Ericsson, Hyundai, Orion, Sigmatel and many more they must have the quality, good looking, features, camera, sound, memory size, guaranty, warranty, price and many more, Now a new brand mi-world available online in market. Homeshop18 offers best mobiles at lowest price. Please have a look below some details of mi world gsm mobile phones.

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•    Torch Light: Yes, Hindi Language Display, 3 Built in Games

•    SMS Memory: 100 Messages + SIM Memory

•    Phone Book Memory: 300 Contacts + SIM, 16 Chord WAV Ring tones

•    Battery: Battery Type: 800mAh Li-ion Battery, Talk Time: Up to 4.5hrs, Stand-by Time: Up to 170hrs

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•    Battery x 1, Charger x 1, Headset x 1, Manual x 1

(2). Mi-World GSM Mobile Phone Model No: Mi-Metalix 300F

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•    External Memory: Micro SD expandable up to 2GB, Screen Size: 1.77 inch (4.5cms).

•    Hindi and English Languages – On Screen Display, 3 Built in Games

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•    VGA Camera, Video Player, Image Browser

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•    FM Radio: Yes, MP3 Player, 16 Chord – Polyphonic and MP3 Ring tones

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The Language Problem

 

 

 

Writen by:

Maqsood Hasni

 

 

 

Complied By:

Prof. Mohammad Abdulla Qazi (PhD Isl. Std., PhD Linguistics)

Principal, Govt College, Bahawalnagar

PAKISTAN

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Contents

Why jump to learn Urdu under any language of the world Word is the silent instrument of expression This is the endless truth The words will not remain in the same style Hindustani can be suggested as man’s comunicational language! Nothing new has been added in the alphabet A languge teacher would have to be awear A languge teacher can make a lot for the human society Hiden sounds of alphabet are not in the books The children are large, important and sensative resource of the sounds Observes Over The Roof The search of new sounds is not a dificult matter as it seems The strong thought makes odinary to special one

 

“Maqsood Hasni was born in1951, at Islam Pura Tehsil and Distt. Kasur. His father, Syed Ghulam Hazoor Shah, was a Punjabi Sufi poet. He got his early education from his father. He got his master degrees in Urdu, Political Science, Economics and History from the Punjab University. He passed his M.Phil (Urdu) from Allama Iqbal Open University. He got his Doctorate in linguistics from USA

Along with this bright academic career, he has a very long and vast career as a journalist. Hundreds of his essays have been published in various journals and newspapers.

As a poet, short story writer, humorist, linguistic, critic, researcher, Ghalib expert, Iqbal expert he wrote nineteen books.

He tested his mettle in poetry in different languages and dialects (Urdu, English, Punjabi, Gojri, Pothuhari, etc.)

He has a long, bright career as an educationist comprising twenty three years.”  

(Prof Niamat Ali)

 

 

 

 

 

 

(1)

Why to do it jump to learn Urdu under any language of the world

This age is very strange and painful for slave nations.  They are not knowing or not understanding what to do or which to leave.  They are breathing under the domination powers.  They have not the clear distination.  There the deparatments work under the guaiance or the supervision of others.  The true unfortunate is this that the powers of forgion do not know there needs, , mental leval, thought anatomy, working the preferences etc.  They know only how to return these weak and weak nations and order over their resources. 

The education department is espcially disrupted by their interference and attitude.  The principal cources of university have not the individual match of spirit.  For example I will talk here on the subject of the language of Urdu.  The langauage of Urdu is a 2nd speaking language of the world. That has a stronge expressing power and a sounds system of his matching man.  In this regard no language can be held before Urdu. 

This language has his own sentence to do the rules and the code.  Why to do it jump to learn it under any language of the world.  This is the true Muslems have their own methods, phychalogy, attitude, likes, dilikes and life preferences.  This is equally the Muslem regitered of a fact are as and like the persian one and the Arabic.  Reasoning, the two languages affected on their local languages.  The Muslems have heart relation with these leanguages.  But his average no under which one must think the Urdu or by or with the assistance of these languages.  The languages ie Arabic and the Persian one have possess there installed linguistics and the system of sounds that is different absloutely of the Urdu or of behind. 

In the universities Arabic and the Persian one are included as cource necessary.  The student must study these two languages.  Which need of the study of these two languages to learn the Urdu. Which links and cocercon of these languages with the Urdu.  One does not think currently nevertheless any language of the world or by the assistance of other languages.  They have adopted the so many words of other languages.  You can obtain the English as example.  It let words of thousands adopt of other,  not only this English has got a lot of noises of componds Sh, kh, ph, ch, gh etc.  Engish is not  thought anywhere in the world by or trough or with the help of any other language.

Why the Arabic and the Persian one are included in the principal cources.  Which Arabic and persian word took place in the Urdu is not now the Arabic or Persian.  That very different of these two languages by a lot of reasons: 

There the meanings in the Urdu are different In the Urdu there the usages are not as there maternal languages Here the words mahajar have the different pronanciation there in value and the value is different The system of linguistics of the Urdu is different quitely of the latter bilingual ones

It is stupid and old days thinking that we can not learn and pass Know outside the Arabic and the Persian one.  While these are languages of seprate so why to lean itself the for the better one and learn consequently the language of Urdu.  I want to mention a certain example the release and arrangement and to clear my point of view: 

Hoor, oqaat, asami, ahwaal are pural in Arab but the latter are the unique one used in the Urdu.  These words equally are not employed as there systems of linguistis of mother tongues.  A more thing they have the different Urdu of meaning of the there maternal language.  Aie’nak (means glasses) is a composed world (Aien, the Arab means eyes); runs naak, average smell, (a local word) and never are employed in Arbaic.  Zimma; an Arabic word, (responsible means) but speaks here the zomma.  Zomawaar, zomma’dar are heard to the western Pendjab.  Tashnagi speaks the tishnagi, khalwat speaks the khilwat. 

As these hundreds of words the words are speaks inside in different.  Khasam is employed for the husband and the master.  I can here mentioned of the examples of hundreds to show that these words mahajar are have not now a small concern with the Arab or persian.  It is true that these languages did the affects on the Urdu but his average no that now the Urdu have the Arabic or the Persian become one.  On the reasoning that these languages have the affect and deep affections on the Urdu thus these languages are necessary to learn the Urdu, why not English, Japanese, Turkish and a lot of other languages did not include in cources of Masters of Urdu.  I think that no one have answar of this question. 

In the new age the English did the affects of root on the Urdu.  On this earth masters editors of cource should take the English in the principal cources because morden the urdu have the word of thousands of the English in different model and meanings of form.  I recommended that the Urdu must be matter and treated by the Urdu because it has its own rules of identity and of linguistics. 

The word transfer from a language to other, is not a strange process.  In fact the gathering of man the other visits men or of man to other places or the man come from different places.  They would have to take care of the various works and life bussines.  Of this manner they obtain a lot of things of every others.  They speak on a lot of questions and of burning matters of the day.  By of this manner, the words move themselves of here to there.  The Urdu is a language of phase and social.  It obtain not only of the affects of the other equally put affect of languages on them.  A sincer and a researcher working hard can find words of language of Urdu in different forms, forms and meaning in the world languages. 

 

 

 

(2)

Word is to silence instrument of expression

 

It maybe under many reasons of conflect between nations, cultures, civilizations, families, even man to man. But two plows not ignoreable:

1-       Man remains Officers’ Club of Revolutionary Armed Forces or keep Officers’ Club of Revolutionary Armed Forces form man to man on the bases of selfishness. Selfish elements to ever desired to have hold on resources of world or keep to man in lowest position for geting his resources and servics on low rates. Crown or to power holders also did the same game.

2-       a.Having one mistaken some sayings. Sayings maybe quitely different as have understood.

Word is to silence instrument of expression. When to person touch this instrument, it should sees started woking under the decission of that person’s social, economical and religious required needs and desires. It works according to the equality, dislikeness, of the need or the style or the mood of his speaker. Meaning do not sees fixed for Word.

One Word do sees used for many type meaning i.e beauty, not beauty, selfishness, true, rolls, angry, agree, disagree, faith, disfaith and under. Some times to speaker say very different or oposite from understanding. It also dog sees happened people understandingly get worng or oposite meaning for their benifits.

Way of talking or mood of to listener also dog sees caused misunderstanding and conflect. It dog sees represented language of court for as example reference. If Word have fixed meaning this controductry position shall to never occours. Law will to never seems helpless on various situations. Lower courts decissions will sees considered final.

Word meanings game take to matter to higher apilent courts. Who do nothing but is punished while criminals and to personnel who there are commited some bad deed plows released and get escapes.

It is to strong and important deed and need of the day that man should eats to closer to each to other. In this deed, sevice man respecting authoritis must also sees taken part with true and to sincer desire. I say with full responsibilty man there are not serious matters or controduction with each and to other. All conflects plows arised and have taken pleases by the heads of ststes/institutions, political elements as well as selfish and gready money and resources controling powers. For They have not care man’s pain, to hunger and thirst. They only know how to get dwells and dwells, who is in pain and crices they have not care at all.

The final man with the man banance the life. Man will try to know the other man by his life put up, metal approach, mood, pesonalty opinion, social and economic needs. often way of the traffic needs routine and act etc. by this way will come cutural and and civiliation similirties also on the surface. Man will respect each other. He will do many type relations with everybody others. He will carry each other with the whole use and bads. He will help other in bad times, and celebirate in good times. Whan know man will eats to near to other man then there am will eats to (by way and style of speaking, trend, leval metal, approuch of thinking and many dwells like these things.

Personal Other ones speaking language even then they may sees same language speaking and same City or street persons. After knowing someone personally, meanings dog sees got properly and according to his sayings. Conversian process is very senative.

Talking and listening, both plows depend upon personal understanding and confidence. Without understanding and knowing each to other, decisions dog not sees taken freely with justice. Everyone of us to whether there are is king, president of to country, bussinesman or to begger comman individual or to layman, there are to very short life. In this short no dog affords life conflects. They must not sees give room in life.

Man should live peacefully happily and tention relief through out. Give love and get love. Help everyone under that there am help you. Personal Provide everyone without any likeness. Don’t see who is there am color by race.. Possible Peace is not without implimentation stupefies stated two basic but importent necessities of life.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(3)

This is the endless truth

Points out that this is the endless truth, so universal cannot support his state of origin. Every instant of life, to change form, sense, use, quality and uses it now. Finally, the end of last year, Communications / death. Nevertheless, it is as an universal fact as the transfer of experience and from competences to other one and of next year will not be stop process at any time.

Novels of the name of model, culture and civilization. Budh pad is Papulose religion and his impact on the subcontinent in the community it ya of good religious Zartusht name of it between the religious world.

We are well known of all are not well brought up, in most cases the name and the respect for the world of the modern society. It makes no doubt that they still exist, but are not well known, was in epoch. They do not dominate the heart of the people and from the Earth. Even if they do not have control of its own means.

 When Hazrarat Esa left the world, and to teach the sensitization of its ideas worldwide. Appered even the religion as a culture and from the society of a big creed. That’s how this religion thing Now, in daytimes! He stays only as a personal question.

Islam as potency worldwide. Abolition of the big countries of Islam, their ideology and their way of life in these days. Muslim teachers, and previous Sophie Ulmas part of world. They said in the poeple on the beneficial effects of Islam. Sowad hoders also to do the job on the name of Islam. As we must acknowledge that their efforts, the Islam prevailing in Muslis here and there, and respected dignitiy. But what took place the last year?! Now, the day of the Muslim community is at the very least from the worldwide society. Gher Muslims that they do not like the thread. They think that they tarrorest.

Socalism is a consided check “Ism” of the world. After 70 years of it and loses its value and stocks.

It is necessary to say that these countries will be accepect efforts khalafat -e -Arzi / Badshahi. The country controls it all characters. Besides, as I made it experience and competences are going to continue. All these countries are still in the file.

The language is not a seprate by the people. They have even never left only two loudspeakers them. Besides, the predominant language of the person, across their speeches. The impact of the acquisition of the language and the near language, at the same time, in the short term and the effect of the language. The countries of ***** language a big country of the world is not, but he can set up a certain number of words and language close to the world. Very as Persian, Arab language, are also worldwide. The different materials that Cathay Pacific has no original form, no form or the sense of this Jalso, faislo, Jaluso, Zimma / Zomma, khasam, Katakana / kanakata and so on, word Arbic is not. Arab, and can be withdrawn if Pesisian the language in the world under different forms, in forms, sounds and meanings.

In the course of meeting formulated a certain number of so-called English government, the poor people and which is the weaks underlines that there was nothing in position of not in English. The Organization of United Nations or even a person cannot advance without the English language. People can have their own objectives and the English language movement.

What is nonesence Statement and stupid?!

Who can say that this decision position will continue in next time. There is not length. This in May to be in French and in English will be a history an past. English is very poor system of sound. It pleaded so that the voice of linguistics Shanghai Composite Engineering, methane, Kazykhanov, the value of the ph. As an integrant party of the language is communication. They speak across their advance.

Every language has its own value. Other dealers of the English language and then most speakers of this language. They have a very good potency and a purchage big. There are numerous natural resources of their competences is in the daytime in the control of a superpower. Who knows when they will be weak and the poor countries am in power. 2ndly if they are going to leave the product and then usings English and to speak English will cease existing.

My point of view is fundamental today that situation and position is not always. As a result, a superpower and its opointed crual and evil, leaders of the necessary slaves to attack these weaknesses of the poverty of hard labour and love of respect and love. They have to look after their needs.

Chinese and Japanese work hard, and very good in Monaco, and we think that Iranis Faith Strong and audacious. It is possible tomarrow one of them will be. Then Cheinse, Japanese and Persian tomarrow in May??

Difficulties met in problem and Pachtounes in conflict. There will probably be to fight in the next fruits. And then all Pakhto is going to dominate the world lagnuages. All that depite shall never forget the fact that the language will lose its value and the value of communication according to objective. Mahajar will be the full value of the fact that the language. I underline one more time that the English alogwith deciples behaive their business, they will not have peace in the world.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(4)

The words will not remain the same style

It is a fact that the dictionary is a tool useful in order to understand the meaning of the word. Moreover it helps to sense of a word. Without doubt dictionary a sure time idenritify a track trace or a sighn. The dictionary to moreover says what a word is in itself if relative pronoun of name or some other more. But my point is this that we cannot render them low to knowing or to understand a word. Perhaps the dictionary demonstrates to a tool or an element helping in the search of the linguistica process.

Besiside this, is often transformed in a hardle to knowing or the understanding or discovering of the meanings of a word. A earth part, country does not have a community of the acronyms. That one can have many comunities. That one has always different colors thus, race like the different languages that they speak people. Not only this the same colors, race pure the same people speaking about language do not have one-way of conversation style or speaking. However cultivation of that country on the whole will be considered a cultivation.

Relative it means that cultre of the country, in effects having many mini/little cultivations. Every miniums cultivation have relative the own style, rules and living codes of value of life and tradations social that are only for that cultivation. Quell’ perhaps prominente identity of that cultivation. Here theirs of the citizen or the country language of comunication of language, own making style, conversation and phrase will even have theirs the rules. The words have the different uses and meanings the other zones. The word second gives to the meaning the relative phrase. Every construction of phrase within of the situation puts into effect them of value of the cultivation, of quell’ event or need or of the legal document of conversation. The words moreover give to the meanings second the relative social condition and of operation.

A word can have different meanings between the person that different the two eg one is servent while other is landladies. The phrases are spoken in the different experiences and on the situactions different. Here the word differs from already in use to the meaning or available in the meanings of the dictionaries. Reason for which every experiece and every situation perhaps different in the experiences record.

The language of the market is not like the domestic language. Here the style and the sense of conversation will be changed automatically. This change, changes the meanings of a word. The market/bazzar is not to consist of a type stores etc of things of the poeople. Thus infuences of this variety on the meaning of the word.

In fact the word has relative servival and the life in a sentence. Thus the meanings have deep relationship with the relative one sentece. If we try to having meanings without a phrase that will be limited the word for fixed and already the meanings. While the fact is this that the word is nothing without a sentece. It is to align that the word indicates a sure thing.

The chair means a thing for location down. But the chair has many to mean other then this meaning. They are not wrong meanings or unaccepted. As an example:

• The chair has relative own preferences.

• The chair must seen all the good ones or bads.

• The not gradice chair people of the anti-chair.

• The chair does not have justification for the critics.

• The chair cannot make some unusual one without relative sporters **********.

The words will not remain the same style, conversation sense or of it pronounces in the different situations, places of the differents, between different people and the different houses. It does not forget that to mean and the word form they are living in the movments. The movement supplies energy to a word. After experince and long and deep experiments I have obtained this result that without a doubt;

The dictionary is a useful tool for the meanings of words but they are not last and minimal.

the second thing is this that the dictionary does not make resove all the linguistici problems of comunities.

The relative meanings supplied perhaps refused to many places, situations, expeiences, needs  to be human and necessity. The words have not repaired and stationary meanings. A word that has positive bonds and meanings but it has a strong possibility perhaps that negitive the defective meanings and are available in the market.

As an example

O (yes, in Urdu acha) it was you who abuse me. (Acha to yah tum thay jis nay mujhy galiaan dein.)

O now i have to leave. (acha to ab mein chalta hoon)

No doubt you have done a good job./Bilashoba tum nay acha kaam kiya hai.

Ab woh acha ho giya hai. Now he is better./Bimar tha sehatmand ho giya hai/bora tha magar ab bora nahain raha. Urdu word acha is using for good or better.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(5)

Hindustani can be sugested makes man comunication language!

The department of the man by the religion of the color language range/country or culture actual not an expenditure today. It started very makes first movment of the life. The egoistic elements never like to have a fort or until comman an association makes man. They alway had tried to create one conflect enter the man to the man. Why they make thus? Simple It, they knows if the man close makes man its fincial robbery and desires dominate over men will be closed. They will remain one comman and no body will bend to them. Who will serve and load its rough and not parlimany conversations of nosence and orders. When and where they turn a unit man or asociation they had started its badly dirty and dull methods of the unit in addition of man.

Why the man is not wanted to understand the egoism of being able egoistic? If the man makes to remain in pices, the abandonment of poverty and a slavery will leave never it to free a hand. It will not move away a land freely. Its brothers but life of distant places will understand never it and he does not make in the position to serve in it bad weather. Today presentage of hunter of resources and money is much more dangerous then no past. The money and the hunters of appositive resources are seem one active very then some time.

A religion is resource greatest can be made a unit of human beings. Unhappyly religion failed badly because religion is also has devided in as many parts little and small. It is deficulty to decide a person who is in right or truth. A culture also has much many differences. A land is divided in the many pices.

A thing only remains who can be made a unit of men. Many languge are poken in the word. The man love one its language but an example is available in the world who had joined men of different areas. It is the Urdu. Urdu is not a native language of Pakistanis. Each provinces have as its proper native language/languages. The Punjabi for Punjabis, Sindhi for Sindhis, Balochi for Balochis while Pakhto is a native language of Pakhtoons. People of all area can speak and understand Urdu easily. The whole Pakistanis  thinks and considers it one its nantional language. When they find one another they use this language each conversation of type its.

Aries of question,

why the Hindustani (Urdu+Hindi) can be sugested makes man comunication/talk language!

In fact it is Hindustani (Hindi + Urdu). It only has a writing difference. In another way in it speaks and undersatanding, is same. The egoistic elements divide it for fincial and governing benifits. Hindi is a national language and comunicative/talk of India. In the different Universities of the world Hindi and Urdu (Hidustani) are tought as a subject. It very means many people who do not live in Subcontinent, is in the position to speak or to understand or to have both as abilities.

Conde that papulation that they do not live or live in Subcontinent, is more then a half papulation makes world. The Hindustani (hindi of Urdu) has the excess and more sounds of each language make world. It is in the position to cover necessities of language without the sound of sabstitue of each language makes world.

It can adopt each thing that is the style or the way takes/conversation. In this direction for they favor gives one looked in this example:

 

   Os nay khana khaya                                                   Hindustani sentence making style

 “khaya Khana os nay/ Khana khaya os nay                 Japnese sentece making style

This Japnese style is not strange or dificult of Hindustani. Each speaks of Hindustani or Hindustani man knowledge can easily understand a significance of the conjunct.

An only substance remains what it is writing. Logotipo it has three writings of writing;

• Arabic (Urdu)

• Dev’nagri (Hindi)

• Roman (English)

Third is comman of Urdu or Hindi that it knows people. It  does not have doubt Roman has as many defects in consideration with sounds. linguistics can be decided. I am in the position to argue and also ready the conversations of comperetive in languages make world. I know that this thing is not digestable but second option and a solution of this substance is not available in the market of languages.

The Hindustani is a learning language the easy one makes world. It has more ablity to adopt words, styles, way of saying and types of diferent of the creation of senteces. As above mentioned example:

“khaya Khana os nay/ Khana khaya os nay                

this conjunct that makes styles can easily be understood.

Lets to try to demonstrate putting with the presentation of the sounds of some languages of the prominet. You will see that Hindudtani (Hindi+Urdu) it is the richer language of the world regarding the relative acoustic system and is in the position in order to obtain the place like language of comunication of the world.

Urdu

? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

                                                                      ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?                                         :37

?  - ? – ? – ?                                                                                                   :04

?  (? + ?, ?+mad)                                                                                                 

( Aao ? ?,  khao, pao, lao, pilao,

Badamaan, farozaan, charaghaan, mehmaan,

Sonae, othae, lae, aae)

Maha Paran:? ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?  

              ? ? ? ? ?                                                                                                              :11

Symbolic sounds: Zabar, zair, paish, shaad, jazam                                                         :05

                               Khari zabar, khari zair                                                                       :02

                               Olta paish:                                                                                           :01

Azghambilghona:                                                                                                                :01

                           (In writing donba but in speaking domba)

                            (Donbala in writing but in speaking dombala)

Total                                                                                                                                  :61

Note: I have made deliberately not pointed out some sounds of the streat in the list.

Arabic:             

   ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?  ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

              ? ? ? ? ? ?                                                                                                         :30

Symbolic sounds: Zabar, zair, paish, shaad, jazam                                                       :05

                               Khari zabar, khari zair                                                                     :02

                               Olta paish,  Azghambilghona                                                          :02                                                                                      

 Total:                                                                                                                                :39

 

 

Persian

 

 

 

Total:                                                                                                                32

 

English

 

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z                                             :26

                                        ee, ll, mm, oo, ss, tt                                               :06

Double letter sounds do not consider like shad  or do not think that it is a subtitue of shad

Compond sounds: sh, ph, ch. gh, kh, bh, dh, jh, th                                     :09

                               Th       provides two sounds:

                               ? :         the, this, that, them

                           ? ?:          thali, thaal, brtha

                                           Thought, throug

                                            (th do not provide full coverage to ?

                                In fact this sound is mostly used for ? ?)

                       su for sheen (?) e.g. suger                                                    :01

                       ion  for za’ay farsi  (?) e.g.   Sesion,vision                              :01

Some impotent points:

1. For ?? and ? the s is only available.

2. For ??? and ? the z it is used.

3. ? is not available in English. The relative sound of the sabtitute is t while the relative sound is ?

4. for the sound of the residual one of ?  Kh is used while it ? ? pronounced Example:

    khali mean empty

    khata mean the workplace, the book record, the layer of blance etc.

     khana means the meal

Total:                                                                                                              :41

Japani:

 

K, s, t, n, h, m, y, r, w, g, z, d, b, p                                                             :14

K has two sounds  ka and kha

J                         %A

Hindi Hub Articles


English is a second language for Indians. Though the sound system and the pronunciation is very difficult for them still they got a mastery over the language. Its due to the long collaboration with the British people and specially for their interest in it.

 

 The population of India passed a billion, that was thousand million a couple of years ago and it is increasing at the rate of three percent per annum. In 1997 an Indian today survey suggested that about a third of population had the ability to carry on a conversation in English and more or less that will be doubled in coming years.

 “Once before the publication of the most famous book “Kanthapura” by Raja Rao, he gives some valuable comments on the Indian English that “We in India , think quickly, we talk quickly and when we move, we move quickly. There must be something on the sun of India that makes us rush and tumble and run. We can prove our dialect which will some day prove to be distintictive and colorful as Irish or the American. Time will justify it.”

 

 Really time justified it. Now people skip their meals for a class of English for their children. It’s a passport for employment and one can say it’s a pinch of salt for  the all round personality of a person. As cross cultural exchanges happens and job requires knowledge of effective English speaking skills, the people across the world including China, Germany and the other non-speaking European nations are very conscious about their English.

The flow of globalization changed every thing. In the year1947 people were in roads to protest English medium schools but now people are donating funds for better English medium school.  Economic scenario changed the attitudes of Indians. Secured jobs and good incomes made them more comfortable and confident and the same confidence has shown in their speaking style.

Indians can not speak like the British and the American. They should not. They must look at the larger part of the world like their own part. People like to call it “Indian English” sometimes proudly and some times derisively.

   Indians have excellent control over their written English, yet when it comes to pronunciation or speaking effectively, one is not sound . the problem is while the native speakers think English, they think in their mother -tongue and translate it while speaking. There are some sounds boxes of our mother tongue which are become hurdles for improving the pronunciation  like dha sound in our mother tounge which is not present in English

 

Indian call center executives speak in native way than accented English to appeal their foreign clients. The focus here is  in making thinks clear and the problems solved rather than acceptance of the accent but its true that pronunciation plays a grate role in learning a language and it is one of the barrier in process of communication.



 

Infact, Indian English is a recognized dialect of English like BBC English or Australian English. It has lots of distinctive syntax and quite a bit of lexical variation and it can be as hard for American to understand as British especially if it is spoken in speed.

 Many believe that Indian English is very similar to British English. Every linguistic item is not used in Indian English. Like alveolar consonants replaced by retroflex consonants e.g walked- walk. Indians shorten terms, that is not pronounced as it should be, like fundamental shorten to fundas and pronounced as fundamental.

The influence of Hindi in English is always there in the land of India where its national language, the colloquialism of which has been widely accepted by the Indians and even some words like Badmash ,babu, maska and many more are introduced in English dictionaries. If you go to any office the receptionalist will ask you “ What can I do for you?” rather saying “ Can I help you?”which is Hindi influence “ Me apke liye kya kar sakti hunu?”like the Indians in habit of asking “ What is your good name?” as we are saying in hindi “ Apka subha nam kya he?” so when people speaks English they mix Hindi in context of their conversation the accent of which some how similar with the English rather than other regional languages hence the speakers of English like to use Hindi as code switching and code mixing.

 When Indians use English it’s a Dalama (a dish mixture of all vegetables and some dals ), the seven C’s of communication that is Candid, Clear, Concise, Correct, Complete and Concrete while the native speakers following the Candid, Clear and Concreteness in their speaking. We are bilingual hence we think of English as intellectual make up than emotional.

Like other English speaking countries India is going to make mark in world language, showing Indian English as a Standard English as American and Australian. The time has really come for us to prove that learning a  new language is always  like learning your mother tongue. If the population of  crores are able to express their ideas clearly which will understood by more than half of the population of world then their style of speaking is going to be accepted by others no doubt.

Lect. Mrs Sumitra Biswal

 

Srusti Academy of Manegement

 

Hindi Hub Articles


The achievements of Muslims in the field of mathematics are extremely remarkable. A regular study of this science, like all other sciences, was begun during the reign of the second Abbasi Caliph, Al-Mansür in. the second half of the eighth century A.C. During this period the work on mathematics was exclusively done by Muslims.1 Some stimulus came from Indian and Greek works which were later translated into ‘Arabic. The investigations were carried out, and until the end of the fifth century A.H. /the 11th century A.C., nearly all of the original and creative work was done by Muslims, and even the non-Muslims wrote all the works on mathematics in Arabic. In the 12th century the Christians and Jews started the work of translation from Arabic into Latin and Hebrew, and also began to conduct research in this field. But until, the end of the 13th century no mathematical work comparable to that of Muslims could be done by the Christians or Jews.

                                    The Muslims used numerals including zero for counting in contrast with writing the amounts in words, or counting with the letters of alphabet. Thus they made arithmetic simple and applicable to the problems of everyday life in connection with commerce and trade and the division of estates and inheritance. The zero has a great importance in arithmetic. Without zero it is not possible to indicate the figures like tens, hundreds, etc. If zero is not used it becomes necessary to use a table (named abacus) with columns of units, tens, hundreds, etc., to keep each figure in its place.2 The zero was used by the Muslims centuries before it was known in the West. The Latin word ciphra for zero is of Arabic origin; the Arabic word for it being sifr, meaning empty or nil.

                                    The West learnt the use of numerals from the Arabs, and, therefore, called them the ‘Arabic numerals”.3 The Arabs themselves termed them as Hindi numbers’ (al-A’dad al-Hindi). The word Hindi has been translated as Indian by some writers, for, as they suggest, the numerals are of Indian origin. But this translation of the word Hindi does not seem to be correct, for, the word Hindi is sometimes written in place of Handasi, i.e., what relates to Handasah which means geometry and the art of engineering. Thus the numerals called Hindi may simply mean ‘the mathematical characters’. There are some such instances in which the word Hindi may be considered to be a substitute for Handasi such as in astronomy ‘wherein a graduated circle called Dä’ira-e-Hindi may better be translated as ‘Mathematical (Geometrical) Circle’.4

                                    The diffusion of the Arabic numerals in Christian Europe was very slow. The Christian mathematicians either used the old Roman numerals and the abacus, or used the Arabic numerals together with their old system. It was only in the 12th century that after learning from the Muslims the Western scholars were able to produce some literature on the numeral system, without columns, and completed by zero.5 It was Leonardo of Pisa who after traveling in Muslim lands and studying the Arabic system of numerals there, published a work which is mostly responsible for the introduction of that system into Europe. This system was named algorithm (or algorism) which has been derived by the Latin writers from the patronymic al-Khwärizmi (a native of Khwarizm) who was a distinguished Muslim mathematician, astronomer and geographer of the ninth century A.C. He flourished under the Caliph al-Mã’mun. His full name was Abü ‘Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Müsã al-Khawàrizmi. This name gained so much popularity that it was included in many languages of the world. Till the end of the 18th century the science of numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) was called by the Latin writers as algorism whereas in Spanish it was termed as Guorismo. The English poet Chaucer named zero as augrim.6

                                     The Muslims made advancement in arithmetic. They wrote books on the arithmetic of every day use. They also wrote on commercial arithmetic. Algebra was made by them an exact science. Al-Khwärizmi named his book dealing with this subject as Kitab al-Jabr Wa’l Muqabalah (the book of restitution and comparison). The word Jabr means ‘restitution’. It is the adding some thing to a given sum or multiplying it so that it becomes equal to another. The word Muqábalah means comparison. This term is applied for the comparison of the two sides of an equation as a + b=5, It seems that the word al-Jabr was originally used for these simple operations i.e. addition and multiplication, but later on it came to mean the whole subject.7

                                      The Muslims founded analytical geometry as well as plane and spherical trigonometry. The latter which in the early stage of its development was considered to be a part of astronomy, was made a separate branch of mathematics in the 13th century when it became sufficiently advanced. Under the Caliph al-Mansür, the centre of the Muslim Caliphate was transferred from Syria to Persia. The plans of the new capital, Baghdad, were drawn under the direction of the celebrated Minister, Khälid ibn Barmak for making measurements preliminary to the building of Baghdad. A Persian astronomer and engineer, Naubakht, and an astronomer named Masha Allah were appointed for this purpose. To Masha Allah is ascribed a book dealing with the prices of the wares, which is extant in Arabic. It is the first work of its kind in Arabic literature.8 A book on astrological judgments, Kitab al-Ahkam, was written by Naubakht.9

                                       The Caliph gathered around him a number of learned men at his court. His court mathematician, Muhammad Ibn Ibrãhim al-Fazari and Ya’qub Ibn Tariq were the first to introduce Hindu mathematics to Arabs through an Indian astronomical and mathematical work, Siddhanta.10 Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yüsuf who flourished sometimes between 786 and 833 probably in Baghdad. was the first to translate EucZid’s E.emento into Arabic. This work was twice translated, first under the Caliph Hãrün al-Rashid and again under his son al-Ma’mün. The second Arabic version was translated into Latin.11 Abü Sa’id al-Darir al-Jurfani (d. 845), who was a Muslim astronomer and mathematician, wrote a treatise on geometrical problems.12

                                    The Muslim mathematician, astronomer and geographer, Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Müsä al-Khwãrizmi (d. 850) gathered Greek and Hindu knowledge, and through his arithmetic (later translated into Latin), the Muslims and the Europeans were introduced to the Hindi system of numerals. His influence on mathematical thought has been more than that of any other medieval writer. He wrote an encyclopedic work dealing with arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. In one of his books he discusses the question of the origin of numerals.13

                                    In his book on Algebra, al-Khwãrizmi first of all deals with the problems of the second degree equations. After that he describes multiplication and division. He also discusses the measurement of surfaces. A section of the hook deals with the problems of inheritance. The equations of the first degree are illustrated by numerical examples. The author distinguishes the following six cases of the equations of the second degree. Squares equal to roots, ax2=bx; squares equal to numbers, ax2=c; roots equal to numbers, ax=c; squares & roots equal to numbers, ax2+bx=c; squares and numbers equal to roots ax2+c=bx; roots and numbers equal to squares, bx+c= ax2. The author gives an analytical solution of linear and quadratic equations. From his way of treatment of the equations the idea of positive and negative signs seems just to emerge. The author also gives a geometrical solution, illustrated with figures, of quadratic equations as x2+l0x=30. Such equations have been repeated by the later writers.14

                                   In his book, Leonardo of Pisa enumerates the six cases of quadratic equations just as al-Khwärizmi does. He comment that the Arab method is superior to the method of Pythagorus.15 The three brothers, Ahmad, Muhammad and Hasan, called Banü Müsa (the sons of Müsã), who flourished during the reign of al-Ma’mun, wrote many mathematical, mechanical and astronomical works. Ahmad was especially interested in mechanics and Hasan in geometry. The third brother, Abu Ja’far Muhammad, who was also a logician and a student of Euclid and Almagest, was probably the most prominent. Among their works the most important ones are their treatises on the balance (Frastün or Qarastun), on the measurement of the sphere and on the trisection of the angle and the determination of two mean proportional between two given quantities (later translated into Latin). Banü Müs described the kinematical trisection of the angle and the so called gardener’s construction of the ellipse (by means of a string attached to the foci).16

                                      The encyclopedic scientist and the philosopher of the Arabs, Abü Yüsuf Ya’qüb Ibn Isäq, popularly known as al-Kindi (Latinized as Al-Kindus) because he belonged to the Kindah tribe), wrote 270 works, some of which deal with mathematics. He wrote four books on the use of Hindi numerals. The writings of äl-Khwärizmi and ál-Kindi were the main channels through which the numeral system became known to the West.17

                                       In the second, halt of the 9th century A.C., the number of Muslim mathematician increased considerably. Some of them specialized in arithmetic, some in geometry and the others, who were astronomers as well, showed particular interest in trigonometry. During this period the use of numerals became common. It was due to the fact that at that time the trade of the Muslims was flourishing in every part of the world. This active trade accelerated the diffusion of numerals throughout the world. The earliest Muslim documents bearing the numerals date from 874 and 888 A.C.18

                                      A great mathematician and astronomer of this century was Abü ‘Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn ‘Isa al-Mahãni that is from Mahan, Kerman, Persia (d. 844 A.C.) He wrote commentaries on Euclid and Archimedes, and improved the translation made by Ishäq Ibn Hunain of Menelaos’s Spherics. He tried in vain to solve an Archimedean problem which was to divide a sphere into two segments being in a given ratio. It led to a cubic equation, x3+C2b=cx2, which was called al-Mahani’s equation. This problem became a classical Muslim problem.19

                                     Hilãl al-Himsi translated the first four books of Apollonius into Arabic for Ahmad, one of the three sons of Müsä. Ahmad Ibn Yü’suf who was a secretary of the Tulunis, the rulers of Egypt from 868 to 905, wrote a book as an ode, a commentary on Ptolemy’s Centiloquium, and a book oh proportions. The latter is of special importance because it influenced the medieval thought and through it Western mathematicians became aware of .the theorem of Menelaos (about the triangle cut by a transversal).20

                                     Al-Fadl Ibn Hatim al-Nairizi (Latin Anaritius) who flourished under al-Mu’tadid (d. 922) wrote commentaries on Ptolemy and Euclid, which were translated into Latin. He used the tangent as a genuine trigonometric element.21 Thabit Ibn Qurrah (d. 901) improved the .theory of amicable numbers (if p=3.2n-1; g=3.2n-1-1; r=9.22n-1-1; and if p, q and r are prime together, 2n pq and 2nr are amicable numbers). His mensuration, of parabolas and paraboloids are very remarkable. 22

                                       Al-Battâni (d. 929) devoted the third chapter of his astronomical work to trigonometry. He uses sines considering them to be superior to the Greek chords. He completed the introduction of the functions umbra extensa and umbra versa (whence our cotangents and tangents which are among the fundamental elements of trigonometry), and gave a table of cotangents by degrees. He gave the relation between the sides and angles of a spherical triangle which is expressed by the formula, cos a=cos b cosc+sin b sin c cos A.23

                                       In the 10th century A.C., all the creative work on mathematics was done exclusively by Muslims and all the writings were produced in Arabic. By the end of this century the number of mathematicians increased immensely. Abu Kämil, who was one of the distinguished mathematicians of this period, perfected al-Khwãrizmi’s work on algebra. He determined and constructed both roots of quadratic equations. He made a special study of pentagon and decagon with algebraic treatment, and of the addition and subtraction of radicals, corresponding to the formula ?a ± ?b= ?(a+b±?2ab). He mentioned the multiplication and division of al-gebraic quantities as well. He resolved systems of equations of up to five unknowns. His work was studied and greatly utilized by al-Karkhi and Leonardo of Pisa.24

                                     The Muslim physician and mathematician Abu Uthmãn Sa’id Ibn Ya’qüb al-Dimashqi who flourished at Baghdad under the Caliphate of Muqtadir (295-320/908-932) translated into Arabic the works of Aristotle, Euclid and Galen on temperament and pulse, etc.’ The most important translation made by him was that of Book X of Euclid, together with Papus’ commentary’ on it. He was the superintendent of the hospitals of Baghdad, Makkah and Madinah.25

                                      The astronomer and mathematician, Abü Ishàq Ibràhim Ihn Sinãn wrote commentaries on the first book of Conics and on Almagest. Many papers on geometrical and astronomical subjects (for example, on sundials) are ascribed to him. His quadrature of parabolas was much simpler than that of Archimedes. In fact, it was the simplest ever made before the invention of the integral calculus.26 Ibràhim’s father Sinãn was also an astronomer and mathematician. Both of them embraced Islam. The Muslim mathematician and astronomer, Ali Ibn Ahmad al-Imrãni (d. 955) wrote a commentary on Abü Kãmil’s algebra.27

                                       Abü Ja’far Al-Khàzin (d. 961) wrote a commentary’ on the Tenth Book of Euclid. Other mathematical and astronomical writings are also ascribed to him. He solved by means of conic sections, the cubic equation, called Al-Mãhãni’s equation which Al-Mãhãni himself could not solve. 28 Al -Kühi, who was the author of many mathematical and astronomical, works, made investigations on the Archimedean and Apollonian problems leading to the equations of a higher degree than the second. He solved some of these equations and discussed the conditions of solvability. These investigations are among the best ones made on geometry by Muslims.29

                                        The mathematician Abü Sa ‘id Ahmad al-Sijzi (951—1024) made a special study of the intersection of conic sections and circles. He replaced the old kinematical trisection of an angle by a purely geometric solution. (Intersection of a circle and an equilateral hyperbola).30 ‘Al-Sãghàni (d. 990) also made a study of the trisections of the angle.31

                                        Abu’l Wafã Muhammad al-Büzjani, who was an astronomer and one of the greatest Muslim mathematicians, flourished in Baghdad where he died in 997 or 998. He was one of the last Arabic translators and commentators of Greek works. He wrote commentaries on Euclid, Diophantos, and al-Khwãrizmi, and a practical arithmetic entitled Kitab al-Kãmil (the complete book). A book on applied geometry named Kitâb al-Handasah is also ascribed to him; He gave the solution of geometrical problems with one opening of the compass, He described the construction of a square equivalent to other squares, and approximate construction of regular heptagon (taking for its side half the side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle). He described regular polyhedron, and gave the construction of parabola by points. He gave the geometrical solution of X4=a  and X4+ax3=b.

                                        Abu’l-Wafá’s contribution to the development of trigonometry is remarkable. He was the first to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles. He gave a new method of constructing sine tables, the value of sin 300 being correct to the eight decimal places. He knew relations for sin (a±b) and also the relation equivalent to 2sin2?/2=1-cos ? sin?=2sin?/2 cos ?/2. He introduced the secant and cosecant which are among the six fundamental elements of trigonometry. He made the study of tangent, and compiled a table of tangents. He had the knowledge of those simple relations between the six trigonometric lines, which are now often used to define them.32

                                           Abü Mahmüd Hãmid Al-Khujandi Cd. 1000 A.C.) proved imperfectly that the sum of two cubic numbers cannot be a cubic number. He may be considered to be the discoverer of the sine theorem relating to spherical triangles.33 Abü Nasr Mansür Ibn Ali, the teacher of al-Birüni, was one of the three to whom goes the credit of the discovery of this theorem. He gave an improved edition of Menelaos’s spherics. He is the author of many trigonometrical and astronomical works.34 Maslamah Ibn Ahmad wrote on commercial arithmetic a book entitled Al -Muâmalât. He spoke of the ****** power of the amicable numbers.35

                                           Let us now discuss the progress made in mathematics in the 11th century. Giving air account of the development of this branch of science in the Latin and Muslim world, George Sarton writes: “A little stream of mathematical thought may be detected in the Latin writings, a stream which will gradually increase, but which will not become truly significant until the 13th century when a sufficient amount of Arabic water will have flowed into it”. He further writes:” Let us pass on to Islam. It is almost like passing from the shade to the open sun and from a sleepy world into one tremendously active”.36 In the East the work on mathematics was done in Egypt, and in the West in Spain, Morocco, Tunis and other places.

                                            Ibn Yünus (d. 1009) introduced the first of those formulae which were indispensable before the invention of logarithms, namely, the equivalent of cos? cos? = ½ [ cos (?-?) + cos (?+?)]. He gave the approximate value of sin10= (1/3)*(8/9)*sin (9/8)0+ (2/3)*(16/15)*sin (15/16)0.37 The Persian mathematician Küshyar lbn Labbän made valuable contribution to the development of trigonometry. He continued the investigations which Abü Ja’far started on the tangent and compiled a table of tangents.38

                                             Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn al-Husain wrote a memoir (translated into French) on rational right angled triangles, and another on the determination of two mean proportionals between two lines by a geometrical method vs. kinematic method, that is by the use of what the Muslims called  Al-Handsah al-thabit, “fixed geometry”. He gave the solution of the equation X2+a=Y2.39

                                             Abü Bakr Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan (or Husain) al-Hãsib al-Karkhi, flourished in Baghdad during the Ministership of Abü Ghälib Muhammad Ibn Khalaf Fakhr al-Mulk (d. 1016). He was one of the greatest Muslim mathematicians. He wrote a book on arithmetic entitled al-Kafi fi’l-Hisâb (the sufficient on calculation). This book is largely based on Greek knowledge. Instead of using the numerals, the author wrote the name of numbers in full. He wrote a book on algebra entitled Al- Fakhri which he dedicated to the Minister. He gave with proofs the complete solution of quadratic equations and mentioned the reduction of equations of the type ax2p + bxp= c to quadratic equations.. He also described the addition and subtraction of radicals, ?8 + ?18=?50; 3?54 – 3?2=3?16 and summation of series: ?1n i2 = (?1n i) (2n+1)/3

                                                                    ?1n i2 = (?1n i) 2 (with geometrical proof).

He gave the solution of Diophantine equations including twenty five problems which are not found in Diophantos.40

                                             The Persian mathematician Abu’l Hasan ‘Ali al-Nasawi, who flourished under the Buwayhid Sultan, Majd al-Dawlah (d.. 1029) and under his successor, wrote a practical arithmetic in Persian, and translated it into Arabic. In his arithmetic called Al-Mughni-fi’l-Hisäb al-Hindi, he explains the division of fractions and the extraction of square and cubic roots. His replacement of hexadecimal by decimal fractions is remarkable, e.g. ?17° = 1/100 ?l70.0000 = (1/l00) 4120 =40 7′ 12?. 41

                                               Ibn al-Haitham conducted research in catoptrics which contains Alhazen’s problem. it is as follows: “Draw lines from two points in the plane of the circle which meet the circumference at a point and make equal angles with the normal  at the point”. This problem leads to the equation of the fourth degree. Ibn al-Haitham solved it by the help of a hyperbola intersecting a circle. He also solved al-Mãhãni’s (cubic) equation in the same way.42

                                              The encyclopaedist Abü Raihãn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (d. 1045) who was a mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, geographer and traveller, made a good contribution to mathematics. He was one of the greatest scientists of all times. He spent a considerable time in India. He translated a number of works from Sanskrit into Arabic and also transmitted Muslim knowledge to the people of India. Many works on various scientific subjects are ascribed to him. He gave a very clear account of Arabic numerals and a method for the trisection of the angle. He solved many problems (later called Al-Birunic problems) which cannot be solved with ruler and compass alone.43

                                      Now we come to the mathematical work of ‘Umar Ibn ibràhim al-Khayyãm who was one of the greatest Muslim mathematicians and astronomers of the middle Ages. His algebra marks a considerable advance on the work of the Greeks and on that of al-Khwarizmi and other Muslim algebraists, and indicates an advanced stage of the development of this science. While al-Khwarizmi deals only with quadratics, ‘Umar al-Khayyäm mostly discusses the cubic equations. He makes a remarkable classification of the equations, which are based on the complexity of the equation, i.e. on the number of different terms which they contain. Since the beginning of the 17th century the modern classification has been made on the basis of the degree of the equation. But it may be noted that the higher the degree of an equation, the more different terms it can have. The author classified the cubic equations into 27 classes which are subdivided into four categories. He tried to solve them and discussed the limits of the solution. He gave a partial geometrical solution of a number of them. He also investigated Euclid’s postulates and generalities. The algebra of Umar al-Khayyäm was edited and translated into French by F. Woepeke in Paris in 1857. 44

                                    A great astronomer al-Zarqàli (Latin Arzachel) explained the construction of the trigonometrical tables.45 Jabir ibn Aflah, in his book on astronomy named Kitdb al-Hai’ah or Islah al-Majisti wrote an important introduction on trigonometry. He gave the equivalent of the formula: cos’ B=cos a, sin B for a spherical triangle recangu1ar in C.46 Ibn al-Yâsmini wrote a short poem on algebra, and Muhammad al-Hassär, who flourished in the 12th or 13th century, wrote a treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which was translated into Hebrew in 1271.47

                                     ‘Abd al-Malik al-Shiräzi abreviated Apollonius treatise, and Fakhr al-Din al-Rãzi, scholar and philosopher, wrote on Euclid’s Postulates. Muhammad ‘Abd Allah Ibn al-Hassär composed, with the help of Ibn Yünus a treatise entitled Risãlah al-Birkàr al-Tamam, (the treatise on the perfect compass). The ‘perfect compass’ is an instrument by which every conic could be drawn.48 The Hispano-Muslim mathematician, lbn Badr, composed a compendium of algebra, called Ikhtisar al-Jabr wali-Muqäbalah. This compendium includes the theory as well as numerical examples. It deals with quadratic equations, surds, multiplication of, polynomials, arithmetical theory of prort.1on, linear Diophantine equations and similar problems.49

                                       The encyclopaedist Kamãl al-Din Ibn Yunus (d. 1242) wrote a treatise on arithmetic, algebra, square numbers, and regular heptagon and similar topics. He solved one of the questions asked by the Emperor Frederick It, which were submitted to him by the Ayyübi al-Kãmil, (the ruler of Egypt from 1218 to 1238 and of Damascus from 1234 to 1235). The question he solved was how to construct a square equivalent to a circular segment. The proof of the solution was given by one of his pupils, Al-Mufaddal Ibn ‘Umar al-‘Abhari, who wrote an essay on it.50

                                        The Moroccan astronomer, mathematician and geographer al-Hasan al-Marakãshi, who florished until. c. 1262, wrote various works on astronomy. His main work named Jami’ al-Mabadi wa’l-Ghäyãt (The uniter of the beginnings and the ends; i.e., principles and results) is a good compilation of practical knowledge on astronomical instruments and methods, trigonometry and gnomonic. In this work he mentions not only the sine and versed sine (sahm arrow), but also what he called complementary sine(Jaib tamãm) sin (90°-a) = cos a and exceeding sin (jaib fadl), sin (a-90°) = -cos a. He compiled a table of sines for each half degree and the tables of versed sines and arc sines.51

                                         Another Moroccan mathematician and astronomer of the 13th century, Abu’l-’Abbãs Ahmad Ibn Muhammad was a very popular Muslim writer. He is the author of about 74 works, most of which ate on mathematics and astronomy. The most popular of his works is the book Al-Tälkhis ‘an al-Hisab. This book was studied for at least two centuries, and many commentaries were written on it. It was highly admired by Ibn Khaldün. A french translation of it appeared in 164. It is an arithmetical summary which contains many interesting features; improved treatment of fractions; constant use of Hindi numerals, in their western form of course (ghubar). It also contains the summation of squares and cubes; casting out of nines, eights, and sevens; rule of double false position. ? (a2+r) ? a + (r/2a), if r?a

                                    ? a + {r/(2a+1)}, if r>a

                                         Beside Talkhis the author composed four treatises on calculations which deal respectively with integers, fractions, roots and proportions. He also wrote a treatise on binomials and epitomes i.e., quantities of the form a±?b or ?a±?b; on inheritance problems, and on geometry. He wrote an introduction to Euclid and R treatise on the measurement of surfaces. A book on algebra is also ascribed to him.52

                                         Now we come to the mathematical work of Nasir al-Din al-Tüsi who was a Persian philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, physician and scientist. He wrote in Arabic and Persian. He was one of the greatest Muslim mathematicians and scientists. He was born in 1201 in Tus, Khurasan. After the end of the ‘Abbãsi Caliphate in 1258, he became minister to Hulagu. Sixty-four writings on many subjects are ascribed to him. He wrote a number of treatises or commentaries on geometry and a treatise on algebra. Some arithmetical works are also ascribed to him. He wrote on inheritance, problems and a treatise on the proof that the sum of two odd squares cannot be a square. He proved that if a circle internally touches another circle, of double diameter and if the two circles turn or roll uniformly in opposite direction, remaining tangents and the speed of he smaller being twice greater than that of the other, then the original point of contact of the smaller circle will move along a diameter of the greater circle.

                                        Nasir al-Din is well-known mostly for his high achievements in trigonometry. He made a translation of Menelaos’s spherics, and himself wrote on the subject a separate treatise called Shakl al-Qatta’ which means the figure of sector. This phrase refers to Menelaos’ theorem about the triangle cut by a transversal; the Latin words cata or catta in the Latin phrases figura cata or regula catta for Shakl al-Qatta’ is the corruption of the Arabic word al-Qatta’ . Out of the five books of the Shakl al-Qattä’ the books 3 and 4 are devoted to plane and spherical trigonometry respectively. It was the first book wherein trigonometry was treated as a separate branch of science and independently from astronomy. It was the greatest work of its kind in the middle Ages. It contains the first explicit formulation of the sine law relative to plane triangles with two proofs of it. It also contains the six fundamental formulae for the solution of spherical right angled triangles. It also gives the method for the solution of other triangles replacing, if necessary, the consideration of angles by that of sides and vice versa by means of polar triangles. 53

                                       After the Shakl al-Qattä of Nasir al-Din, a book bearing the same title was written by Muhiyy al-Din al-Maghribi who was a Hispano-Muslim mathematician ind astronomer. The latter is partly based on the former, yet it contains important original developments; for example, it gives two proofs of the sine theorem for right angled spherical triangles. One of the proofs is different from those given by Nasir al-Din. This theorem is then generalized for other triangles. The author has also produced editions of Greek classics as Euclid’s Elements, Apollonios’s Conies, with a brief preface, the Odosios and Menelaos’ Spherics arid other works.54

 

REFERENCES

1. Sarton ,George, Introduction to the History of Science, Washington, 1953, Vol I. p. 521

2. Arnold and Guillaume, The Legacy of Islam,Oxford, 1974 p. 385.

3. Ibid., p. 384.

4. IbId., pp. 384-385.

5. Ibid., p. 386.

6. Al-Khawarizmi, Muhammad Ibn Müsa, Kitàb al-Jabr wa’l Muqabalah, Cairo, 1939, preface by Ali Mustafa and Muhammad Müsä, p. 13.

7. Arnold & Guillaume, op. cit., p. 382.

8. Sarton, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 531.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., p. 530.

11.  Ibid. p. 562.

12.  Ibid.

13. Ibn Nadeem, Al-Fihrist, Cairo, p. 383.  Sarton, op. cit., p. 563.

14. Al-Khawarizmi, op. cit., pp. 15-66 , 67-106.

15. Arnold & Guillaume, op. cit., p. 384.

16.  lbn Nadeem, op. cit., pp. 378—379. Sarton, op. cit., p. 561.

17. Ibid., p. 357.

18.  Sarton, op. civ., p. 585.

19. Ibid., p. 597.

20. Ibid., p. 598.

21. Al-Qifti., Tarikh al-Hukamä, Leipzig, 1903, p. 254

22. Ibid. p. 599.

23. Ibid., p. 602.

24. Ibid., p. 630.

25. Ibid., p. 631.

26. Ibid.; Al-Qifti,’ op. cit., p. 57.

27. Al-Qifti, Ibid., p. 233.

28. Sarton, op. cit., p. 664.

29. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 351.

30. Sarton, op. cit., p. 665.

31. Ibid., p. 666.

32. Ibid., p. 666. ; Ibn Nadeem, op.cit., p. 394.

33. Ibid., p. 667.

34. Ibid., p. 668.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid., p. 695.

37. Ibid., p. 716. ; A1-Qifti, op. cit., p. 230

38. Al-Baghdádi, Ismail Basha, Hadiyyat al-‘Arifin, Istanbul, Vol. I, 1951, p. 838.

39. Sarton, op. cit., p. 666.

40. Ibid., p. 718.

41. Ibid., p. 719.

42. Al-Baghdádi, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 66. ;  Sarton, op. cit., p. 721.

43. Sarton, Ibid., p 707.

44. Ibid., p. 759.

45. Ibid., p. 758.

46. Ibid.,Vol. II, part I,  p. 206.

47.  Ibid., p. 400

48. Ibid., p. 401

49. Ibid.,Vol. II, part II,  p. 622.

50. Ibid., p. 600.

51. Ibid., p. 621; Al-Baghdádi, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 286.

52.Sarton, Ibid., p. 998.

53.  Ibid., p. 1001. ; Al-Baghdádi, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 131.

54. Sarton, op. cit., p. 1051. ; Al-Baghdádi, op. cit., p. 516.

Hindi Hub Articles


In a paper at Regional Conference of the Association of Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies Held at India International Centre, New Delhi on February23-6,1975,R.Parthasarathy , while exposing the position of Indian writers in English reffered to the comments of American poets Allen Ginsberg ,Gary Snycler and Peter Onlovsky: “If we were gangster poets we would shoot you”(1), his threat was direct against the Indian writers’ failure to take risk with the English language.

To explain the reason behind this R.Parthasarathy says that there at least two problems which prevent Indian writers to take the risk. First is related to the kind of experience he would like to express in English .

Indian who use the English language gets in some extent alienated . This development is superficial and this is why much blame ‘Indian Writers in English’(IWE) as writers who present India in a foreign view-point .There work doesn’t contain a deep analysis of the Indian realities and Indian characters .

Many regional writers (many of who are even Jnapitha Awardees) say writing in English in India is a severe handicap as it tends to make their writing export oriented .Hindi writer Rajendra Yadav puts it as : “The IWE take a tourist look at India , like Pankaj Mishra’s The Romantics , where he is simply a tourist who does not know the inner psyche of people or a more clever device Vikram Seth uses in A S uitable Boy ,the pretext of looking for a bride-groom ,which takes him to different locales and professions . It is a creatively written travelers’ guide .They travel into our culture , describe a bit of our geography ; their total approach is a westerner’s :a third rate ‘serpant-rope trick’”

Many believe that IWE is circumscribed by what only westerner can appreciate :either exotica or ******* .Both these elements are visible in Ruth Prawar Jhabavala’s Heat and Dust .There is description of shrines , Sadhus ,Nawabs ,Princes and their castles along with *** and gay-parties and Hijraas .Jhabvala’s picture of princely India is extremely un realistic ,quixotic and pseudo-romantic .Similar is the case of Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things . B.Jaya Mohan in a recent interview to Out Look magazine (February 25 , 2002) said :”Writers like Roy are superficial and exotic .When Roy uses English to express a Malayalam idiom , it might be exotic for westerner , but for Indians it is not very exciting .”

Still there are writers in English for whom a little praise is made ,but that even by another English writer.In an obituary to R.K.Narayan in Time magazine ,V.S.Naipul writes :”His people can eat off leaves on a floor in a slum tenement ,hang their upper clothes on a coat stand ,do all that in correct English ,and there is no strangeness ,no false comedy ,no distance” But still regional writers believe ; ” …but any Tamil writer would have put more life into his novels than R.K. did”.

The battle of the first kind of problem guides us into the second and this is ‘ the quality of idiom the writer uses’ .R .Parthasarathy says that ” there is obviously a time lag between the living , creative idiom and the English used in India .And this time lag is not likely to diminish”.

It is because the historical situation is to blame .Besides there is no special English idiom ,either .English in India rarely approaches the liveliness and idiosyncrasy of usage one finds in African or West Indian writing , perhaps because of the long tradition of literature in Indian languages .

This is explained by Kannada d Oyen ” writers in Indian language have a rich back-ground — centuries old literary traditions,flok tales and life all round them — the IWE only have frontyard”.That’s why Rushdie draws fom the ethos and Hindi of Mumbai,while writers like Narayan draws from Tamil and Raja Rao from Kannada .But still the idiom they use lacks in liveliness, because “it’s impossible to transfer into English the cultural traditions and the associations of language”.This is why it is not surprising that writers in English tend to over emphasize their Indianness . This also explains why Michael Madhusudan Dutt after publishing thesis first book The Captive Lady(1849) in English turned to Bengali to become the first modern Indian poet .

While a regional writer can directly concentrate mode of writing the IWE has to face a complex problem—‘he has to go through the tedious explanations of the idioms he uses in his book ,leaving little space for creative writing’.

Perhaps Narayan was the only writer who never cared for such explanations .Naipul writes (Time,June 4 ,2001) :

“There is or used to be a kind of Indian writer who used many italics and for the excitement ,had a glossary of perfectly simple local words at the back of his book .Narayan never did that .He explains little or nothing;he talks everything about his people and his little town for granted”.

But this is not possible for every IWE writer who wants to perform an experiment in creative English writing .R.Parthasarathy explains in the context of his own position as an English poet with Tamil as his mother tongue . “English is a part of my intellectual, rational make-up Tamil my emotional ,psychic make-up”Hence it is he believes that every IWE feels that he has an unnecessary burden to do the explanation of the idioms he uses ,and My Tongue in English Chain is a theoretical statement of this problem.

Russian scholar E.J.Kalinikova in Problems of Modern Indian Literature (1975) also refers to this problem in G.Byol’s words :

“National colouring is like naivete’ ,if you realize you have it ,then you have already lost it […] Conception of the Indian through Indian eyes is natural,and this only determine the scope of literary subject”, where as an English writer ofIndia tries to give .The elements in a foreign language for which the whole experience of that element is strange and in the end what is produced is in Kamala Das’s words:

“It is halfEnglish,half Indian

Funny perhaps, but it is honest” [An Introduction]

To provide a compromise M.R.Anand writes in his essay Pigeon—Indian:Some Notes on Indian English Writing : “The real tests are different The first test is in the sincerity of the writer in any language .The second test may be in the degree of sensitiveness or individual talent”.

And in what this talent lie ?Anita Desai has the answer :

“I think I have learnt how to live with English language,how to deal with the problems it creats –mainly by ignoring them”

This view is supported by Henery James –”One’s own language is one’s mother ,but the language one adopts as a career, as a study ,is one’s wife[…] she will expect you to commit infidelities .On those terms she will keep your house well”

Perhaps that’s why IWE like Raja Rao have justified their own stand as :

“We can write only as Indians[…] Time will alone justify it”

[Introduction to Kantapura]

Every writer (especially poet) ,as many believe ,sooner or later suffers from ‘Aphasia’ or ‘loss of poetic speech’ .His poetry ought to ,from the beginning aspire to the condition of silence.This is similar to Rene’ Wellek’s notion on Endgame of Samuel Beckett :

“Samuel Beckett in Endgame has been looking for the voice of his silence”

But Wellek’s view is applicable to the living force that still move the Indian English writers’ pen on paper .

“The artist,s dissatisfaction with language can only be expressed by language .Pause may be a device to express the un expressible ,but the pause can not be prolonged indefinitely”.

So, in spite of the problems related to language and diction in use , the writers must keep on trying their best in carving out on them ,their creativeness on experimental basis ,because that may one day lead us to where we are now caving to reach.

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Char Dham Yatra  is a beautiful and Introductory trip of Himalayas. Opening dates of Char Dham Yatra – 2009 has been declared Yamunotri 27 April, Gangotri 27 April, Kedarnath 30 April, Badrinath 1 May will open as per the special dates .We have 3 type of Packages for Char Dham Yatra 2009. 

 

TOUR HIGHLIGHTS

Tour Duration: 12 Days / 11 Nights

Destinations Covered: Delhi – Haridwar – Barkot – Yamunotri – Utterkashi – Gangotri – Rudraprayag – Kedarnath – Joshimath – Badrinath – Rishikesh – Delhi.         

Special Features of Char Dham Yatra:

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